Glossary of Key Terms and Concepts
a posteriori A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that comes after experience or observation of the physical world. The term a posteriori means “from what comes later” and, thus, refers to knowledge that comes as a result of physical experience. For example, the statement “Whatever goes up must come down” appears to be knowledge based on experience.
a priori The term a priori comes from the Latin language and means “prior to experience.” Thus, a priori knowledge is knowledge that exists before any experience with the physical world. The classic example of a priori truth is mathematics. The mathematical formulation “2+2=4” is said to be a priori because this truth comes from reflection alone and not from experience.
Agnosticism In regard to the issue of God, agnosticism is the view that God cannot be known. Agnosticism can take two forms. The first is that knowledge of God is not possible through reason. Immanuel Kant took this view when he argued that matters outside of the physical realm, like God and the soul, were unknowable to human reason. The second form of agnosticism asserts that God’s existence is simply not known. A person espousing this second form of agnosticism would say, “I just don’t know if there is a God or not.”
Atheism Atheism is the view that there is no God or gods. It actively asserts that the evidence in the world indicates that there is no divine being(s). It is the opposite of theism, which asserts that there is a God or gods. Atheism is also distinct from agnosticism, which declares that the evidence is inconclusive as to whether there actually is a God or not.
Cosmological Argument The cosmological argument is an argument for God’s existence based on the belief that the world must have been caused by some supreme being(s). The term “cosmological” comes from the Greek word kosmos, which means “world.” According to the cosmological argument, all contingent things, including our world, must have a cause. But since there cannot be an endless series of causes, or what is called an “infinite regress,” there must be one “uncaused cause” that started the process of contingent beings.
Empiricism Empiricism is the view that all knowledge comes from sense experience. It is contrasted with rationalism, which claims that knowledge stems from innate ideas in the mind. Thus, with empiricism the five senses are the basis for knowledge. Empiricism is often viewed as being at the heart of the modern scientific method since it stresses observation of the physical world.
Epistemology Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It addresses the limits of human knowledge including issues such as the definition of knowledge, types of knowledge, the degree to which knowledge is possible, and the relationship between the one knowing and the object being known. Questions such as “How can I know anything?” and “How can I know what is true?” are questions related to epistemology.
Ethics Ethics is a branch of philosophy that addresses morality. It is the study of moral value, right and wrong. Ethics places value on personal actions, decisions, and relations. There are at least five major approaches to ethics—Greek, Christian, Kantian, Utilitarianism, and Ethical Relativism.
Evil, Problem of The argument against God’s existence from the presence of evil in the world is often stated in the following form: “How can an all-powerful and all-good God allow suffering in the world?” According to the traditional view, God has certain characteristics or attributes. One is that He is “all-powerful,” which means He can do whatever He wants. Another is that God is “all-good” and desires what is best for His creatures. Some believe that these two attributes of God are inconsistent with the presence of evil in the world. Their argument goes like this: “If God is all-powerful and desires the best for His creatures, then why doesn’t he prevent evil from happening?” After all, if you had the power to stop a child from being hit by a car, wouldn’t you do it? When we look at all the tragedies in the world, we wonder why God does not put an end to these things.
Idealism Idealism is a metaphysical theory about the nature of reality that asserts that the external world does not exist independently of the human mind. Thus, only ideas exist. In contrast to materialism, which views matter and energy as the only realities, idealism asserts that reality exists in our minds and not in the external world.
Irenaean Theodicy The Irenaean theodicy is named after the second-century church father Irenaeus. This approach asserts that God made human beings with the need for “soul-making” or personal development. Since humans were made with the need to develop, God made the world with evil in it to give humans opportunities to grow spiritually. According to Irenaeus, this world is a “vale of tears” that prepares us for the next world to follow. This present world is not the best world, but it is the best path to the coming best world. Through participation in this imperfect world we become better prepared for the glorious world to come. A form of this approach has been promoted more recently by John Hick.
Metaphysics Metaphysics is a major branch of philosophy that addresses the broad issues of reality and existence. It focuses mostly on the nonmaterial aspects of reality and those things that are not subject to scientific verification or mathematics. Metaphysics addresses issues like the existence of God, the soul, the mind-body relationship, the meaning of life, and whether there is an afterlife. Metaphysics is closely related to ontology, which is the study of “being” and the entities that are a part of the universe.
Naturalism Naturalism is a worldview that assumes that the universe is a closed system in which matter and energy are the only realities. This perspective rules out the existence of any supernatural beings—including God, gods, angels, devils, and various other supernatural or preternatural beings such as ghosts, goblins, and poltergeists—and any supernatural activities. According to naturalism, the world operates according to natural laws in which there are series of causes and effects. Because the universe operates according to natural processes, there are no miracles or events that have any supernatural causes. Everything in the universe is subject to scientific study and verification.
Nihilism Nihilism comes from the Latin term nihil, which means “nothing.” Thus, nihilism is literally “belief in nothing.” This perspective, which serves somewhat as an anti-philosophy, asserts that there is no justification for anything, especially values or morality. Nihilism also denies the possibility of knowledge and attributing value to anything. Thus, the world and human existence are without meaning and purpose.
Ontological Argument The ontological argument is an argument for God’s existence based on the belief that the very idea of God is proof that God exists. The ontological argument is often stated like this: “God is the greatest being imaginable. One of the aspects of perfection or greatness is existence. Thus, God exists.” This argument for God’s existence was developed by the twelfth-century theologian and philosopher Anselm. It was based on Anselm’s declaration that God is “that which nothing greater can be conceived.” Anselm’s ontological argument is different from other major arguments for God’s existence in that it is an a priori argument—an argument of the mind and not of experience.
Pantheism Pantheism is the view that identifies God with the world and everything in the world. Or put another way—“God is everything and everything is God.” The term “pantheism” comes from two Greek terms—pan, which means “all,” and theos, which means “God.” Thus, pantheism literally means “all is God.” With pantheism, there is a unity to all things, and any statement about any object is really a statement about God.
Pascal’s Wager Blaise Pascal applied the idea of a “wager” to belief in the existence of God. According to Pascal, it was better for a person to wager in favor of God’s existence than to bet on the opposite idea that God did not exist. Why? The answer is related to the consequences of each option. If a person wagers on God’s existence and it ends up being true that God does indeed exist, then that person will inherit eternal life. If the end result is that God does not exist, though, then the believer loses little. He merely ceases to exist. On the other hand, if a person chooses to not believe in God and God does exist, then that person will suffer the horrible consequences of eternal punishment in hell. For Pascal, then, the choice was clear. If you are undecided as to whether to believe in God or not, the smart thing to do is wager is on God’s existence. Pascal’s Wager differs from other traditional arguments for God’s existence in that it does not attempt to show that God exists. Rather, it focuses on why people should believe in God’s existence.
Philosophy of Religion Philosophy of religion involves the study of the nature and basis for religious beliefs. It often focuses on the areas of God’s existence, the soul, the afterlife, the problem of evil, and miracles.
Rationalism Rationalism is the view that reason is the primary or sole basis for all knowledge. Rationalism contrasts with empiricism and its assertion that all knowledge comes from a person’s physical senses. There are various forms of rationalism, but pure rationalism asserts that true and certain knowledge of the world can be found, and the way to find this knowledge is through mental processes. Those who believe in rationalism often assert that people are born with innate ideas that are not affected by our day-to-day experiences.
Relativism Relativism is the perspective that truth and morals are relative to persons and groups holding them; thus, there are no absolute truths and morals that are true for all people of all times. Relativism is the opposite of absolutism, which asserts that there are universal truths and morals that are true for everyone. Those who are relativists argue that morality and truth are social inventions. People determine what is right and wrong for them, but their standards are not based in God or on any universal standard. Something is wrong or right, just or unjust, based on what a particular society decides.
Solipsism Solipsism is the belief that the only thing a person can be absolutely sure of is that he or she exists. All other persons or objects do not exist independently and are merely projections of one’s mind. The solipsist, therefore, views his or her mind as the only thing that exists in reality. All other persons and objects are reflections of his or her consciousness.
Teleological Argument The teleological argument (or the “argument from design”) is an argument for God’s existence based on the belief that the appearance of design and complexity in the universe argue for a creator. The teleological argument goes like this: “The universe and its contents evidence great complexity. Since great complexities such as the human body and the movements in our solar system cannot happen by random chance, some powerful and intelligent being must have created the universe. This divine architect is God.”
Theism The belief that there is a supreme personal being or God who created everything but himself.
Theodicy The term “theodicy” literally means “the justification of God.” It is the attempt to reconcile God’s positive attributes with the problem of evil.
Transcendental Argument The transcendental argument is an argument for the existence of God that attempts to show that logic, science, ethics, and every aspect of human experience and knowledge are not meaningful apart from a belief in the existence of the Christian God. A version of the transcendental argument was offered by Immanuel Kant. The transcendental argument is commonly used by presuppositional apologists.
Worldview The term “worldview” comes from the German word Weltanschauung, which means “look at the world.” In today’s usage “worldview” refers to the overall perspective from which a person or group sees, understands and interprets the world. This includes conscious and unconscious presuppositions and beliefs concerning a wide variety of topics such as the existence of God, who we are as human beings, our purpose in life, our duties and roles in society, and life after death. A worldview, therefore, can be defined as any philosophy, ideology, religion, or movement that provides an all-encompassing approach to understanding reality.
